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Benefits of Sodium-ion Battery(Na-ion Battery)

Sodium-ion batteries (Na-ion batteries) have emerged as promising alternatives to lithium-ion batteries due to their numerous benefits. These innovative energy storage devices offer a range of advantages, from cost-effectiveness to environmental sustainability. In this article, we will explore the benefits of sodium-ion batteries and their potential impact on various industries.

1. Introduction to Sodium-ion Battery (Na-ion Battery)

Sodium-ion batteries are a type of rechargeable battery that uses sodium ions as the charge carriers. Similar in design to lithium-ion batteries, they consist of an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte. However, sodium-ion batteries utilize sodium ions instead of lithium ions, making them a more sustainable and affordable option.

2. How Sodium-ion Batteries Work

Structure and Components

Sodium-ion batteries typically feature a graphite anode, a cathode material such as sodium cobalt oxide or sodium iron phosphate, and a liquid electrolyte containing sodium salts. During charging and discharging, sodium ions move between the anode and cathode through the electrolyte, facilitating the flow of electric current.

Electrochemical Reactions

The operation of sodium-ion batteries involves reversible electrochemical reactions. When the battery is being charged, sodium ions are extracted from the cathode and stored within the anode. During discharge, the stored sodium ions migrate back to the cathode, releasing energy in the process.

3. Advantages of Sodium-ion Batteries

Cost-effectiveness

One of the key advantages of sodium-ion batteries is their cost-effectiveness. Sodium is more abundant and less expensive than lithium, making it a more affordable option for large-scale energy storage applications.

Abundance of Sodium Resources

Unlike lithium, which is primarily mined in select regions, sodium is widely available across the globe. This abundance of sodium resources ensures a stable supply chain for sodium-ion batteries, reducing concerns related to resource depletion and geopolitical issues.

Safety and Stability

Sodium-ion batteries are known for their enhanced safety and stability compared to lithium-ion batteries. Sodium is less reactive than lithium, reducing the risk of thermal runaway and fire hazards. This makes sodium-ion batteries particularly suitable for applications where safety is a priority.

Environmental Impact

Another benefit of sodium-ion batteries is their reduced environmental impact. The production and disposal of lithium-ion batteries can have negative environmental consequences due to the extraction and processing of lithium. In contrast, sodium-ion batteries offer a more sustainable alternative, with fewer environmental concerns.

4. Applications of Sodium-ion Batteries

Sodium-ion batteries have a wide range of applications across various industries, including:

Grid Energy Storage

Sodium-ion batteries are well-suited for grid energy storage systems, where they can store excess renewable energy generated from sources such as solar and wind power. Their cost-effectiveness and long cycle life make them ideal for balancing supply and demand on the grid.

Electric Vehicles

The automotive industry is exploring the use of sodium-ion batteries in electric vehicles (EVs) as a potential alternative to lithium-ion batteries. Sodium-ion batteries offer comparable performance to lithium-ion batteries at a lower cost, making them an attractive option for EV manufacturers.

Portable Electronics

Sodium-ion batteries can also be used in portable electronics such as smartphones, tablets, and laptops. Their safety, stability, and cost-effectiveness make them a viable choice for consumer electronics companies seeking sustainable battery solutions.

5. Challenges and Limitations

Despite their numerous benefits, sodium-ion batteries face certain challenges and limitations that need to be addressed:

Energy Density

Sodium-ion batteries typically have lower energy density compared to lithium-ion batteries, meaning they can store less energy per unit volume or weight. Improving the energy density of sodium-ion batteries is a key area of research and development.

Cycle Life

The cycle life of sodium-ion batteries, or the number of charge-discharge cycles they can undergo before degradation, is another area of concern. Extending the cycle life of sodium-ion batteries will be essential for maximizing their long-term performance and reliability.

Performance in Extreme Temperatures

Sodium-ion batteries may experience reduced performance at extreme temperatures, particularly in cold environments. Enhancing their performance under a wide range of operating conditions will be critical for expanding their practical applications.

6. Future Prospects and Research

Despite these challenges, ongoing research and development efforts are focused on overcoming the limitations of sodium-ion batteries. Innovations in electrode materials, electrolytes, and battery designs hold promise for improving the performance and scalability of sodium-ion battery technology.

7. Conclusion

In conclusion, sodium-ion batteries offer a host of benefits that make them an attractive alternative to lithium-ion batteries. From cost-effectiveness to environmental sustainability, sodium-ion batteries have the potential to revolutionize energy storage across various industries. While challenges remain, continued advancements in research and development are paving the way for a brighter future powered by sodium-ion battery technology.

FAQs

1. Are sodium-ion batteries safer than lithium-ion batteries?

   • Yes, sodium-ion batteries are generally considered safer due to the lower reactivity of sodium compared to lithium.

2. What are the main challenges facing sodium-ion battery technology?

   • The main challenges include energy density, cycle life, and performance in extreme temperatures.

3. Can sodium-ion batteries be used in electric vehicles?

   • Yes, sodium-ion batteries show promise for use in electric vehicles as a cost-effective alternative to lithium-ion batteries.

4. Are sodium resources sufficient to support widespread adoption of sodium-ion batteries?

   • Yes, sodium is abundant and widely available, ensuring a stable supply chain for sodium-ion batteries.

5. How do sodium-ion batteries compare to lithium-ion batteries in terms of environmental impact?

   • Sodium-ion batteries offer a more sustainable alternative to lithium-ion batteries, with fewer environmental concerns associated with their production and disposal.

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Type of rechargeable battery

Sodium-ion batteries (NIBs, SIBs, or Na-ion batteries) are several types of rechargeable batteries, which use sodium ions (Na+) as their charge carriers. In some cases, its working principle and cell construction are similar to those of lithium-ion battery (LIB) types, but it replaces lithium with sodium as the intercalating ion. Sodium belongs to the same group in the periodic table as lithium and thus has similar chemical properties. However, in some cases, such as aqueous batteries, SIBs can be quite different from LIBs.

SIBs received academic and commercial interest in the s and early s, largely due to lithium's high cost, uneven geographic distribution, and environmentally-damaging extraction process. An obvious advantage of sodium is its natural abundance,[2] particularly in saltwater. Another factor is that cobalt, copper and nickel are not required for many types of sodium-ion batteries, and more abundant iron-based materials (such as NaFeO2 with the Fe3+/Fe4+ redox pair) [3] work well in Na+ batteries. This is because the ionic radius of Na+ (116 pm) is substantially larger than that of Fe2+ and Fe3+ (69&#;92 pm depending on the spin state), whereas the ionic radius of Li+ is similar (90 pm). Similar ionic radii of lithium and iron result in their mixing in the cathode material during battery cycling, and a resultant loss of cyclable charge. A downside of the larger ionic radius of Na+ is a slower intercalation kinetics of sodium-ion electrode materials.[4]

The development of Na+ batteries started in the s. After three decades of development, NIBs are at a critical moment of commercialization. Several companies such as HiNa and CATL in China, Faradion in the United Kingdom, Tiamat in France, Northvolt in Sweden,[5] and Natron Energy in the US, are close to achieving the commercialization of NIBs, with the aim of employing sodium layered transition metal oxides (NaxTMO2), Prussian white (a Prussian blue analogue[6]) or vanadium phosphate as cathode materials.[7]

Sodium-ion accumulators are operational for fixed electrical grid storage, but vehicles using sodium-ion battery packs are not yet commercially available. However, CATL, the world's biggest lithium-ion battery manufacturer, announced in the start of mass production of SIBs. In February , the Chinese HiNA Battery Technology Company, Ltd. placed a 140 Wh/kg sodium-ion battery in an electric test car for the first time,[8] and energy storage manufacturer Pylontech obtained the first sodium-ion battery certificate[clarification needed] from TÜV Rheinland.[9]

History

Sodium-ion battery development took place in the s and early s. However, by the s, lithium-ion batteries had demonstrated more commercial promise, causing interest in sodium-ion batteries to decline.[10][11] In the early s, sodium-ion batteries experienced a resurgence, driven largely by the increasing cost of lithium-ion battery raw materials.[10]

Operating principle

SIB cells consist of a cathode based on a sodium-based material, an anode (not necessarily a sodium-based material) and a liquid electrolyte containing dissociated sodium salts in polar protic or aprotic solvents. During charging, sodium ions move from the cathode to the anode while electrons travel through the external circuit. During discharge, the reverse process occurs.

Materials

Due to the physical and electrochemical properties of sodium, SIBs require different materials from those used for LIBs.[12]

Anodes

Carbons

SIBs can use hard carbon, a disordered carbon material consisting of a non-graphitizable, non-crystalline and amorphous carbon. Hard carbon's ability to absorb sodium was discovered in .[13] This anode was shown to deliver 300 mAh/g with a sloping potential profile above &#;0.15 V vs Na/Na+. It accounts for roughly half of the capacity and a flat potential profile (a potential plateau) below &#;0.15 V vs Na/Na+. Such capacities are comparable to 300&#;360 mAh/g of graphite anodes in lithium-ion batteries. The first sodium-ion cell using hard carbon was demonstrated in and showed a 3.7 V average voltage during discharge.[14] Hard carbon was the preferred choice of Faradion due to its excellent combination of capacity, (lower) working potentials, and cycling stability.[15] Notably, nitrogen-doped hard carbons display even larger specific capacity of 520 mAh/g at 20 mA/g with stability over cycles.[16]

In , researchers demonstrated that graphite could co-intercalate sodium in ether-based electrolytes. Low capacities around 100 mAh/g were obtained with relatively high working potentials between 0 &#; 1.2 V vs Na/Na+.[17]

One drawback of carbonaceous materials is that, because their intercalation potentials are fairly negative, they are limited to non-aqueous systems.

Graphene

Graphene Janus particles have been used in experimental sodium-ion batteries to increase energy density. One side provides interaction sites while the other provides inter-layer separation. Energy density reached 337 mAh/g.[18]

Carbon arsenide

Carbon arsenide (AsC5) mono/bilayer has been explored as an anode material due to high specific gravity (794/596 mAh/g), low expansion (1.2%), and ultra low diffusion barrier (0.16/0.09 eV), indicating rapid charge/discharge cycle capability, during sodium intercalation.[19] After sodium adsorption, a carbon arsenide anode maintains structural stability at 300 K, indicating long cycle life.

Metal alloys

Numerous reports described anode materials storing sodium via alloy reaction and/or conversion reaction.[10] Alloying sodium metal brings the benefits of regulating sodium-ion transport and shielding the accumulation of electric field at the tip of sodium dendrites.[20] Wang, et al. reported that a self-regulating alloy interface of nickel antimony (NiSb) was chemically deposited on Na metal during discharge. This thin layer of NiSb regulates the uniform electrochemical plating of Na metal, lowering overpotential and offering dendrite-free plating/stripping of Na metal over 100 h at a high areal capacity of 10 mAh cm&#;2.[21]

Metals

Many metals and semi-metals (Pb, P, Sn, Ge, etc.) form stable alloys with sodium at room temperature. Unfortunately, the formation of such alloys is usually accompanied by a large volume change, which in turn results in the pulverization (crumbling) of the material after a few cycles. For example, with tin sodium forms an alloy Na
15Sn
4, which is equivalent to 847 mAh/g specific capacity, with a resulting enormous volume change up to 420%.[22]

In one study, Li et al. prepared sodium and metallic tin Na
15Sn
4/Na through a spontaneous reaction.[23] This anode could operate at a high temperature of 90 °C (194 °F) in a carbonate solvent at 1 mA cm&#;2 with 1 mA h cm&#;2 loading, and the full cell exhibited a stable charge-discharge cycling for 100 cycles at a current density of 2C.[23] (2C means that full charge or discharge was achieved in 0.5 hour). Despite sodium alloy's ability to operate at extreme temperatures and regulate dendritic growth, the severe stress-strain experienced on the material in the course of repeated storage cycles limits cycling stability, especially in large-format cells.

Researchers from Tokyo University of Science achieved 478 mAh/g with nano-sized magnesium particles, announced in December .[24]

Oxides

Some sodium titanate phases such as Na2Ti3O7,[25][26][27] or NaTiO2,[28] delivered capacities around 90&#;180 mAh/g at low working potentials (< 1 V vs Na/Na+), though cycling stability was limited to a few hundred cycles.

Molybdenum disulphide

In , researchers from China tried layered structure MoS2 as a new type of anode for sodium-ion batteries. A dissolution-recrystallization process densely assembled carbon layer-coated MoS2 nanosheets onto the surface of polyimide-derived N-doped carbon nanotubes. This kind of C-MoS2/NCNTs anode can store 348 mAh/g at 2 A/g, with a cycling stability of 82% capacity after 400 cycles at 1 A/g.[29] TiS2 is another potential material for SIBs because of its layered structure, but has yet to overcome the problem of capacity fade, since TiS2 suffers from poor electrochemical kinetics and relatively weak structural stability. In , researchers from Ningbo, China employed pre-potassiated TiS2, presenting rate capability of 165.9mAh/g and a cycling stability of 85.3% capacity after 500 cycles.[30]

Other anodes for

Na+

Some other materials, such as mercury, electroactive polymers and sodium terephthalate derivatives,[31] have also been demonstrated in laboratories, but did not provoke commercial interest.[15]

Cathodes

Oxides

Many layered transition metal oxides can reversibly intercalate sodium ions upon reduction. These oxides typically have a higher tap density and a lower electronic resistivity, than other posode materials (such as phosphates). Due to a larger size of the Na+ ion (116 pm) compared to Li+ ion (90 pm), cation mixing between Na+ and first row transition metal ions usually does not occur. Thus, low-cost iron and manganese oxides can be used for Na-ion batteries, whereas Li-ion batteries require the use of more expensive cobalt and nickel oxides. The drawback of the larger size of Na+ ion is its slower intercalation kinetics compared to Li+ ion and the presence of multiple intercalation stages with different voltages and kinetic rates.[4]

A P2-type Na2/3Fe1/2Mn1/2O2 oxide from earth-abundant Fe and Mn resources can reversibly store 190 mAh/g at average discharge voltage of 2.75 V vs Na/Na+ utilising the Fe3+/4+ redox couple &#; on par or better than commercial lithium-ion cathodes such as LiFePO4 or LiMn2O4.[32] However, its sodium deficient nature lowered energy density. Significant efforts were expended in developing Na-richer oxides. A mixed P3/P2/O3-type Na0.76Mn0.5Ni0.3Fe0.1Mg0.1O2 was demonstrated to deliver 140 mAh/g at an average discharge voltage of 3.2 V vs Na/Na+ in .[33] In particular, the O3-type NaNi1/4Na1/6Mn2/12Ti4/12Sn1/12O2 oxide can deliver 160 mAh/g at average voltage of 3.22 V vs Na/Na+,[34] while a series of doped Ni-based oxides of the stoichiometry NaaNi(1&#;x&#;y&#;z)MnxMgyTizO2 can deliver 157 mAh/g in a sodium-ion "full cell" with a hard carbon anode at average discharge voltage of 3.2 V utilising the Ni2+/4+ redox couple.[35] Such performance in full cell configuration is better or on par with commercial lithium-ion systems. A Na0.67Mn1&#;xMgxO2 cathode material exhibited a discharge capacity of 175 mAh/g for Na0.67Mn0.95Mg0.05O2. This cathode contained only abundant elements.[36] Copper-substituted Na0.67Ni0.3&#;xCuxMn0.7O2 cathode materials showed a high reversible capacity with better capacity retention. In contrast to the copper-free Na0.67Ni0.3&#;xCuxMn0.7O2 electrode, the as-prepared Cu-substituted cathodes deliver better sodium storage. However, cathodes with Cu are more expensive.[37]

Oxoanions

Research has also considered cathodes based on oxoanions. Such cathodes offer lower tap density, lowering energy density than oxides. On the other hand, a stronger covalent bonding of the polyanion positively impacts cycle life and safety and increases the cell voltage. Among polyanion-based cathodes, sodium vanadium phosphate[38] and fluorophosphate[39] have demonstrated excellent cycling stability and in the latter, an acceptably high capacity (&#;120 mAh/g) at high average discharge voltages (&#;3.6 V vs Na/Na+).[40] Besides that, sodium manganese silicate has also been demonstrated to deliver a very high capacity (>200 mAh/g) with decent cycling stability.[41] A French startup TIAMAT develops Na+ ion batteries based on a sodium-vanadium-phosphate-fluoride cathode material Na3V2(PO4)2F3, which undergoes two reversible 0.5 e-/V transitions: at 3.2V and at 4.0 V.[42] A startup from Singapore, SgNaPlus is developing and commercialising Na3V2(PO4)2F3 cathode material, which shows very good cycling stability, utilising the non-flammable glyme-based electrolyte.[43]

Prussian blue and analogues

Numerous research groups investigated the use of Prussian blue and various Prussian blue analogues (PBAs) as cathodes for Na+-ion batteries. The ideal formula for a discharged material is Na2M[Fe(CN)6], and it corresponds to the theoretical capacity of ca. 170 mAh/g, which is equally split between two one-electron voltage plateaus. Such high specific charges are rarely observed only in PBA samples with a low number of structural defects.

For example, the patented rhombohedral Na2MnFe(CN)6 displaying 150&#;160 mAh/g in capacity and a 3.4 V average discharge voltage[44][45][46] and rhombohedral Prussian white Na1.88(5)Fe[Fe(CN)6]·0.18(9)H2O displaying initial capacity of 158 mAh/g and retaining 90% capacity after 50 cycles.[47]

While Ti, Mn, Fe and Co PBAs show a two-electron electrochemistry, the Ni PBA shows only one-electron (Ni is not electrochemically active in the accessible voltage range). Iron-free PBA Na2MnII[MnII(CN)6] is also known. It has a fairly large reversible capacity of 209 mAh/g at C/5, but its voltage is unfortunately low (1.8 V versus Na+/Na).[48]

Electrolytes

Sodium-ion batteries can use aqueous and non-aqueous electrolytes. The limited electrochemical stability window of water results in lower voltages and limited energy densities. Non-aqueous carbonate ester polar aprotic solvents extend the voltage range. These include ethylene carbonate, dimethyl carbonate, diethyl carbonate, and propylene carbonate. The most widely used salts in non-aqueous electrolytes are NaClO4 and sodium hexafluorophosphate (NaPF6) dissolved in a mixture of these solvents. It is a well-established fact that these carbonate-based electrolytes are flammable, which pose safety concerns in large-scale applications. A type of glyme-based electrolyte, with sodium tetrafluoroborate as the salt is demonstrated to be non-flammable.[49] In addition, NaTFSI (TFSI = bis(trifluoromethane)sulfonimide) and NaFSI (FSI = bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide, NaDFOB (DFOB = difluoro(oxalato)borate) and NaBOB (bis(oxalato)borate) anions have emerged lately as new interesting salts. Of course, electrolyte additives can be used as well to improve the performance metrics.[50]

Comparison

Sodium-ion batteries have several advantages over competing battery technologies. Compared to lithium-ion batteries, sodium-ion batteries have somewhat lower cost, better safety characteristics (for the aqueous versions), and similar power delivery characteristics, but also a lower energy density (especially the aqueous versions).[51]

The table below compares how NIBs in general fare against the two established rechargeable battery technologies in the market currently: the lithium-ion battery and the rechargeable lead&#;acid battery.[35][52]

Commercialization

Companies around the world have been working to develop commercially viable sodium-ion batteries. A 2-hour 5MW/10MWh grid battery was installed in China in .[68]

Active

Altris AB

Altris AB was founded by Associate Professor Reza Younesi, his former PhD student, Ronnie Mogensen, and Associate Professor William Brant as a spin-off from Uppsala University, Sweden,[69] launched in as part of research efforts from the team on sodium-ion batteries. The research was conducted at the Ångström Advanced Battery Centre led by Prof. Kristina Edström at Uppsala University. The company offers a proprietary iron-based Prussian blue analogue for the positive electrode in non-aqueous sodium-ion batteries that use hard carbon as the anode.[70] Altris holds patents on non-flammable fluorine-free electrolytes consisting of NaBOB in alkyl-phosphate solvents, Prussian white cathode, and cell production. Clarios is partnering to produce batteries using Altris technology.[71]

BYD

The BYD Company is a Chinese electric vehicle manufacturer and battery manufacturer. In , they invested $1.4B USD into the construction of a sodium-ion battery plant in Xuzhou with an annual output of 30 GWh.[72]

CATL

Chinese battery manufacturer CATL announced in that it would bring a sodium-ion based battery to market by .[73] It uses Prussian blue analogue for the positive electrode and porous carbon for the negative electrode. They claimed a specific energy density of 160 Wh/kg in their first generation battery.[59] The company planned to produce a hybrid battery pack that includes both sodium-ion and lithium-ion cells.[74]

Faradion Limited

Faradion Limited is a subsidiary of India's Reliance Industries.[75] Its cell design uses oxide cathodes with hard carbon anode and a liquid electrolyte. Their pouch cells have energy densities comparable to commercial Li-ion batteries (160 Wh/kg at cell-level), with good rate performance up to 3C, and cycle lives of 300 (100% depth of discharge) to over 1,000 cycles (80% depth of discharge). Its battery packs have demonstrated use for e-bike and e-scooter applications.[35] They demonstrated transporting sodium-ion cells in the shorted state (at 0 V), eliminating risks from commercial transport of such cells.[76] It is partnering with AMTE Power plc[77] (formerly known as AGM Batteries Limited).[78][79][80][81]

In November , Faradion co-authored a report with Bridge India[82] titled 'The Future of Clean Transportation: Sodium-ion Batteries'[83] looking at the growing role India can play in manufacturing sodium-ion batteries.

On December 5, , Faradion installed its first sodium-ion battery for Nation in New South Wales Australia.[84]

HiNA Battery Technology Company

HiNa Battery Technology Co., Ltd is, a spin-off from the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS). It leverages research conducted by Prof. Hu Yong-sheng's group at the Institute of Physics at CAS. HiNa's batteries are based on Na-Fe-Mn-Cu based oxide cathodes and anthracite-based carbon anode. In , HiNa partnered with JAC as the first company to put a sodium-ion battery in an electric car, the Sehol E10X. HiNa also revealed three sodium-ion products, the NaCR-ME12 cylindrical cell, the NaCP-ME80 square cell and the NaCP-ME240 square cell, with gravimetric energy densities of 140 Wh/kg, 145 Wh/kg and 155 Wh/kg respectively.[85] In , it was reported that HiNa installed a 100 kWh sodium-ion battery power bank in East China.[86]

Chinese automaker Yiwei debuted the first sodium-ion battery-powered car in . It uses JAC Group's UE module technology, which is similar to CATL's cell-to-pack design.[87] The car has a 23.2 kWh battery pack with a CLTC range of 230 kilometres (140 mi).[88]

KPIT Technologies

KPIT Technologies introduced India's first sodium-ion battery technology, marking a significant breakthrough in the country. This newly developed technology is predicted to reduce the cost of batteries for electric vehicles by 25-30%. It has been developed in cooperation with Pune's Indian Institute of Science Education and Research over the course of almost a decade and claims several notable benefits over existing alternatives such as lead-acid and lithium-ion. Among its standout features are a longer lifespan of 3,000&#;6,000 cycles, faster charging than traditional batteries, greater resistance to below-freezing temperatures and with varied energy densities between 100 and 170 Wh/Kg.[89][90][91]

Natron Energy

Natron Energy, a spin-off from Stanford University, uses Prussian blue analogues for both cathode and anode with an aqueous electrolyte.[92] Clarios is partnering to produce a battery using Natron technology.[93]

Northvolt

Northvolt, Europe's only large homegrown electric battery maker, has said it has made a "breakthrough" sodium-ion battery. Northvolt said its new battery, which has an energy density of more than 160 watt-hours per kilogram, has been designed for electricity storage plants but could in future be used in electric vehicles, such as two wheeled scooters.[5]

TIAMAT

TIAMAT spun off from the CNRS/CEA and a H EU-project called NAIADES.[94] Its technology focuses on the development of -format cylindrical cells based on polyanionic materials. It achieved energy density between 100 Wh/kg to 120 Wh/kg. The technology targets applications in the fast charge and discharge markets. Power density is between 2 and 5 kW/kg, allowing for a 5 min charging time. Lifetime is + cycles to 80% of capacity.[95][96][97][98]

They are responsible for one of the first commercialized product powered by Sodium-Ion battery technology, as of October , through the commercialization of an electric screw-driver.[99]

SgNaPLus

SgNaPlus is a spin off from National University of Singapore, that uses a propeitary electrode and electrolyte. [1] It is based in Singapore and leverages on research conducted by Alternative Energy Systems Laboratory (AESL) from Energy and Bio-Thermal Systems Division in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, National University of Singapore (NUS)[2]. The division is founded by Prof Palani Balaya. SgNaPlus also has rights for the patent for a non-flammable sodium-ion batteries.

Defunct

Aquion Energy

Aquion Energy was (between and ) a spin-off from Carnegie Mellon University. Their batteries (salt water battery) were based on sodium titanium phosphate anode, manganese dioxide cathode, and aqueous sodium perchlorate electrolyte. After receiving government and private loans, the company filed for bankruptcy in . Its assets were sold to a Chinese manufacturer Juline-Titans, who abandoned most of Aquion's patents.[100][101][99]

See also

Notes

1. ^

   The number of charge-discharge cycles a battery supports depends on multiple considerations, including depth of discharge, rate of discharge, rate of charge, and temperature. The values shown here reflect generally favorable conditions.

2. ^

   See Lithium-ion battery safety.

3. ^

   Temperature affects charging behavior, capacity, and battery lifetime, and affects each of these differently, at different temperature ranges for each. The values given here are general ranges for battery operation.

References

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